The Human Anatomy and Physiology HSBTE examination paper for the second-semester Diploma in Medical Laboratory Technology held in July 2023. Here is an overview of the examination paper questions and their answers for the second semester held in July 2023. By studying and comprehending these topics, students can develop a solid foundation in anatomy and physiology, preparing them for their future HSBTE examinations and careers in the medical field. These topics are also helpful for students studying pharmacy or any other paramedical courses.

Subject : Anatomy & Physiology-II Time : 3 Hrs. M.M. : 60

2nd Year. / Branch: DMLT 221921 July 23

SECTION-A

Note: Multiple choice questions. All questions are compulsory (6x1=6)

Q.1 CSF is present in

a) Respiratory system b) Digestive system

c) Nervous system d) None of these Ans: c) Nervous system

Q.2 Thyroid gland secrete_______hormones

a) Thyroxine b) Tri-iodothyronine

c) Calcitonin d) None of these Ans: a) Thyroxine

Note: The thyroid gland secretes the hormones thyroxine (also known as T4) and triiodothyronine (also known as T3). Therefore, the correct options are:

a) Thyroxine b) Tri-iodothyronine

Q.3 Oestrogen hormone is secreted by______

a) Pancreas b) Ovaries

c) Testis d) Thyroid Ans: b) Ovaries.

Q.4 Blood is a ________Tissue

a) Connective b) Nervous

c) Muscle d) None of these Ans: a) Connective

Q.5 Nephrones are present in_________

a) Heart b) Liver

c) Kidney d) Brain Ans: c) Kidney.

Q.6 Tissue fluid which is carried by lymphatic vessel is known as__________

a) Blood b) CSF

c) Pleural Fluid d) Lymph Ans: d) Lymph .

SECTION-B

Note: Objective/ Completion type questions. All questions are compulsory. (6x1=6)

Q.7 Expand AV node.

Ans: The AV node stands for Atrioventricular nodeTop of Form

Q.8 Define sense organs.

Ans: Sense organs are specialized structures in the human body that allow the reading of various stimuli from the external environment. These organs are responsible for detecting and transmitting sensory information to the brain. Sense organs are Eyes, Ears, Nose, Tongue, and Skin.

Q.9 Expand C.N.S & A.N.S

Ans: Central Nervous system and Autonomous Nervous System.

Q.10 What is the function of ureter.

Ans: The ureters are muscular tubes that transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.

Note: The function of the ureters is to facilitate the passage of urine produced by the kidneys to the bladder for temporary storage. It is expelled from the body during urination

Q.11 What are hormones.

Ans: Hormones are chemical messengers produced and released by specialized glands or cells. It is produced and released in one part of the body and travel to target cells or organs in another part of the body through the bloodstream. These help to maintain homeostasis and coordinate the functions of different organs and tissues.

Q.12 Define ovulation.

Ans: Ovulation is a main event in the menstrual cycle of females to release a mature egg (ovum or oocyte) from one of the ovaries. This process typically occurs around the midpoint of the menstrual cycle.

SECTION-C

Note: Short answer type questions. Attempt any eight questions out of ten questions. (8x4=32)

Q.13 Explain various types of blood components.

Ans: Blood is composed of several different components, each with specific functions. The major components of blood are:

1. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes):

Function: Transport oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body and carry carbon dioxide back to the lungs for exhalation.

Structure: Biconcave discs containing the iron-containing protein hemoglobin.

2. White Blood Cells (Leukocytes):

Function: Part of the immune system, involved in defending the body against infections and foreign substances.

Types: Neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils.

3. Platelets (Thrombocytes):

Function: Play a crucial role in blood clotting (hemostasis) by forming blood clots to prevent excessive bleeding.

Structure: Fragments of larger cells called megakaryocytes.

4. Plasma:

Function: Acts as the liquid component of blood, transporting blood cells, nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout the body.

Composition: Water (about 90%), dissolved electrolytes, plasma proteins (such as albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen), hormones, nutrients, gases, and waste products.

5. Plasma Proteins:

Albumin: Maintains osmotic pressure and transports various substances.

Globulins: Include antibodies (immunoglobulins) that play a role in the immune system and transport proteins.

Fibrinogen: Essential for blood clotting; converted to fibrin during clot formation.

Q.14 Describe the thalamus and what are its functions?

Ans: The thalamus is a small, bilateral structure located in the brain. It is situated above the brainstem and below the cerebral cortex. It serves as a relay and integration center for sensory information. The thalamus is composed of two egg-shaped structures.

The functions of the thalamus include:

• 1. Relay Center for Sensory Information: The thalamus acts as a relay station for sensory signals traveling to the cerebral cortex.

• 2. Motor Function: Coordination of motor signals between different brain regions.

• 3. Regulation of Consciousness and Alertness,

• 4. Role in Emotional and Memory Processes,

• 5. Pain Perception

• 6. Regulation of Sleep and Wakefulness,

Q.15 Draw the structure of nephrone.

Ans:

Q.16 Draw the well labelled diagram of human brain.

Ans:

Q.17 Define cardiac output. What determines cardiac output?

Ans: Cardiac output is the volume of blood that the heart pumps per minute. It is expressed in liters per minute (L/min). Mathematically, cardiac output (CO) is calculated as the product of heart rate (HR) and stroke volume (SV):

Cardiac Output (CO) = Heart Rate (HR) × Stroke Volume (SV)

The following determine cardiac output

1. Heart Rate (HR): This represents the heartbeats per minute. It is influenced by factors such as autonomic nervous system activity, hormones, and physiological demands.

2. Stroke Volume (SV): This is the volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle of the heart during each contraction (systole). It is influenced by factors such as preload (volume of blood in the ventricles before contraction), contractility (force of ventricular contraction), and afterload (resistance the heart must overcome to eject blood into the systemic circulation).

Q.18 Write different functions of kidney.

Ans:

• 1. Filtration of Blood:

• 2. Regulation of Fluid and Electrolyte Balance:

• 3. Acid-Base Balance

• 4. Blood Pressure Regulation

• 5. Erythropoiesis Regulation

• 6. Detoxification

• 7. Metabolism of Vitamin D,

• 8. Glucose Regulation,

• 9. Maintenance of Osmolality,

• 10. Excretion of Metabolic Wastes.

Q.19 Describe fertilization in brief.

Ans: Fertilization is also known as conception. It is the process of sperm cell from a male fusion with an egg cell (ovum) from a female. This results in the formation of a zygote. Fertilization occurs within the female reproductive system in human. The following are steps of the process:

• 1. Release of Egg (Ovulation): An egg is released from one of the ovaries during ovulation. The released egg enters the fallopian tube, where it awaits fertilization.

• 2. Sperm Journey: Sperm cells are deposited in the female reproductive tract through sexual intercourse. They travel into the uterus and then into the fallopian tube. In fallopian tube fertilization takes place.

• 3. Fusion of Sperm and Egg: If a sperm successfully penetrates the egg's outer layer, sperm undergoes a process called the acrosome reaction. It releases enzymes that help sperm penetrate the egg's membrane. A single sperm successfully penetrates the egg and fertilization occurs and the genetic material from the sperm combines with that of the egg.

• 4. Formation of Zygote: The fusion of the genetic material from the sperm and egg forms a single-cell structure called a zygote. The zygote contains a complete set of chromosomes, half from the mother and half from the father.

Q.20 Write the functions of the pituitary gland.

Ans: The pituitary gland is also called the "master gland". It produces and releases hormones that regulate various physiological processes throughout the body. The pituitary gland is divided into two main parts: the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) and the posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis).

Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis): It secretes the following hormones

• 1. Growth Hormone (GH): Stimulates growth and development of bones and tissues. Promote the synthesis of proteins and the breakdown of fats.

• 2. Prolactin (PRL): Stimulates milk production (lactation) in the mammary glands of the breast after childbirth.

• 3. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and release thyroid hormones. Thyroid hormone regulates metabolism.

• 4. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): Stimulates the adrenal glands to produce and release cortisol. It is involved in stress response and metabolism.

• 5. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): Stimulates the development of ovarian follicles and the secretion of estrogen in females. Stimulates sperm production in the testes in males.

• 6. Luteinizing Hormone (LH): In females, it triggers ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum. In males, stimulates the production of testosterone in the testes.

Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis):

• 1. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH or Vasopressin): Regulates water balance by controlling the reabsorption of water in the kidneys and reducing urine volume. Blood vessel constriction which regulates blood pressure.

• 2. Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth. Also, promotes milk ejection (letdown reflex) during breastfeeding. Oxytocin is involved in social bonding and emotional responses.

Q.21 Write any four functions of the cardiovascular system.

• Ans: The cardiovascular system is also known as the circulatory system. The following are four main functions of the cardiovascular system:

• Transport of Oxygen and Nutrients

• Removal of Waste Products

• Maintenance of Homeostasis

• Immune Response and Defense:

Q.22 Write the functions of fallopian tubes.

Ans: The fallopian tubes are also known as uterine tubes or oviducts. A pair of tubes is present in the female reproductive system. The following are the main functions of the fallopian tubes:

• 1. Transportation of Eggs (Ova): The fallopian tubes transport eggs (ova) from the ovaries to the uterus. The fallopian tubes capture the egg with the help of finger-like projections called fimbriae.

• 2. Site of Fertilization: Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tubes.

• 3. Transportation of Zygote: Zygote is formed by the fertilization. The fallopian tubes facilitate its movement from the site of fertilization toward the uterus.

• 4. Secretions for Embryo Nutrition: The fallopian tubes produce secretions that contribute to the nutrition of the early-stage embryo. These secretions provide a supportive environment for the developing embryo.

• 5. Protection of the Uterus: The fallopian tubes act as a protective barrier for the uterus. It captures the egg released during ovulation and provides a site for fertilization.

SECTION-D

Note: Long answer type questions. Attempt any two questions out of three questions. (2x8=16)

Q.23 Explain the various events of cardiac cycle.

Ans: The cardiac cycle is the series of events that occur in the heart during one complete heartbeat. It involves the contraction and relaxation of the heart chambers (atria and ventricles) and the opening and closing of heart valves. The cardiac cycle is divided into two main phases: diastole and systole. Each phase consists of specific events.:

• 1. Diastole:

  • a. Atrial Diastole: The atria are in a state of relaxation (diastole). Blood from the veins (such as the superior and inferior vena cava) flows into the atria. Then the atrioventricular (AV) valves (tricuspid and bicuspid/mitral valves) are open.

  • b. Ventricular Diastole: The ventricles are also in a state of relaxation during this phase. Blood from the atria flows into the ventricles through the open AV valves. Toward the end of atrial diastole, the atria contract (atrial systole). It sends the remaining blood into the ventricles.

• 2. Atrial Systole: The atria contract, pushing the remaining blood into the ventricles. The ventricles are still in diastole during this phase.

• 3. Isovolumetric Contraction (Early Ventricular Systole): The ventricles start to contract (ventricular systole), leading to an increase in pressure. AV valves close (lub sound), preventing blood from flowing back into the atria. The semilunar valves (aortic and pulmonary valves) remain closed initially.

• 4. Ventricular Ejection (Late Ventricular Systole): Pressure in the ventricles exceeds. The semilunar valves open, allowing blood to be ejected from the ventricles into the pulmonary artery and aorta.

• 5. Isovolumetric Relaxation (Early Ventricular Diastole): The ventricles start to relax. The semilunar valves close (dub sound). It prevents blood from flowing back into the ventricles. The AV valves remain closed initially.

• 6. Ventricular Filling (Late Ventricular Diastole): The ventricles continue to relax. As the pressure in the ventricles falls below that in the atria, the AV valves open, and blood flows from the atria into the ventricles, completing the cycle.

Q.24 Explain the formation of urine in detail.

Ans: The formation of urine is a process known as urine formation or renal physiology. It occurs in the kidneys through a series of complex steps. The process of urine formation involves three main stages: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion.

• 1. Glomerular Filtration: The process begins in the renal corpuscle. Blood enters a network of capillaries called the glomerulus. Blood pressure forces water, ions, and small solutes (but not blood cells and large proteins) from the glomerulus into the Bowman's capsule. It forms a fluid called the filtrate.

• 2. Tubular Reabsorption:

• Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT): The filtrate moves to the PCT. The majority of water, ions, and essential substances (such as glucose and amino acids) are reabsorbed from the filtrate back into the bloodstream.

• Loop of Henle: The remaining filtrate enters the loop of Henle. Water and ions are further reabsorbed or secreted depending on the body's needs.

• Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT): The filtrate reaches the DCT. Here additional reabsorption and secretion occur. Hormones like aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) play a role in the reabsorption of water and ions.

• 3. Tubular Secretion:

• Secretion in the DCT and Collecting Duct: Some substances, such as drugs, ions, and metabolic waste products like creatinine and ammonia, are actively transported from the blood into the filtrate in the DCT and collecting duct. This process helps eliminate additional waste and regulate the body's acid-base balance.

• 4. Formation of Urine:

• Collecting Duct: The remaining filtrate, now called urine. It moves through the collecting duct. The concentration of urine is adjusted based on the body's hydration status. It is regulated by the hormone ADH. The final urine is composed of water, electrolytes (sodium, potassium, etc.), urea, creatinine, and other waste products.

Q.25 Write detailed notes on the ovarian cycle.

• Ans: The ovarian cycle is a part of the menstrual cycle in females. It involves the development and maturation of ovarian follicles, the release of an egg (ovulation), and the transformation of the ovarian follicle into the corpus luteum. It is controlled by the hormones produced by the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and ovaries. The ovarian cycle lasts about 28 days. However, the duration can vary among individuals. It is divided into two main phases: the follicular phase and the luteal phase.

• 1. Follicular Phase:

• Menstrual Phase (Days 1-5): Menstruation occurs if fertilization did not occur during the previous cycle. Simultaneously, a new cohort of ovarian follicles begins to develop in the ovaries.

• Proliferative Phase (Days 6-14): The pituitary gland releases follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). It stimulates the development of multiple ovarian follicles. One dominant follicle, called the Graafian follicle, emerges and continues to mature.

• As the Graafian follicle develops, it secretes estrogen. Estrogen stimulates the thickening of the endometrial lining in preparation for pregnancy. Estrogen levels rise. This leads to negative feedback on FSH and positive feedback on luteinizing hormone (LH).

• Ovulation (Day 14): LH stimulates the release of the mature egg (ovum) from the Graafian follicle. This event is known as ovulation. Ovulation is facilitated by the enzymatic breakdown of the follicular wall. It releases the egg into the fallopian tube.

• 2. Luteal Phase:

• Secretory Phase (Days 15-28): After ovulation, the ruptured Graafian follicle transforms into a structure called the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone and estrogen. They maintain and support the endometrial lining, preparing it for the potential implantation of a fertilized egg. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates. This leads to a decrease in progesterone and estrogen levels.

• Menstruation and Initiation of a New Cycle: With the decline of hormone levels from the degenerating corpus luteum, the endometrial lining is no longer maintained. Menstruation begins, marking the start of a new menstrual cycle.

Dr Pramila Singh