Grammar and Vocabulary: Prepositions, Conjunctions, Punctuation, Idioms and Phrases, Pairs of words (Words commonly misused and confused), Translation of Administrative and Technical Terms in Hindi or Mother.

Prepositions

Prepositions

A preposition is a word that expresses the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another word in a sentence. Prepositions are used before nouns or pronouns and indicate the position, direction, time, or manner of an action.

Kinds of Prepositions:

Prepositions are divided into the following types:

• 1. Single Prepositions: They consist of one word, e.g., in, for, to, with, by, from, of, etc.

• 2. Compound Prepositions: These prepositions are formed with a prefix or suffix, e.g., before, behind, inside, outside, ahead, within, without, etc.

• 3. Phrase Prepositions: They are groups of words, e.g., instead of, because of, due to, according to, in order to, in front of, etc.

Main Points About Prepositions

1. Function: Prepositions show the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other words in a sentence, introducing phrases called prepositional phrases. Examples of common prepositions include "in," "on," "at," "under," "over," "between," "through," "beside," "above," and "below."

2. Prepositions of Movement: Prepositions like "to," "into," "onto," and "across" indicate movement or direction. For example, "She went into the room," "They walked across the bridge."

3. Prepositional Phrases: A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition and its object (a noun or pronoun). For example, in the phrase "in the box," "in" is the preposition, and "the box" is the object of the preposition.

4. Relationships: Prepositions express relationships between people or things, such as "with," "among," "between," and "beside."

5. Use with Verbs: Some verbs are commonly followed by specific prepositions, forming idiomatic expressions. For example, "rely on," "believe in," "apologize for."

6. Prepositions of Place, Location, and Direction: Prepositions like "in," "on," and "at" are often used to indicate place or location. For instance, "She is at the park," "The cat is on the roof," or the direction "She walked through the park."

7. Prepositions of Time: Prepositions such as "before," "after," "during," and "since" are used to convey time relationships. For example, "We'll meet before the movie," "I have been working here since January," and "We will meet after the presentation."

Examples of common prepositions:

1. Across: Used to denote a location "on the opposite side". For example, "Her married sister lives across the street."

2. At: Utilized in various contexts: a) Before the names of small towns, as in "He lives at Mulana." b) For specific moments or points in time, such as "at midnight," "at night," "at noon," or "at dawn." For instance, "I take my lemon tea in the morning" or "I will visit the market at noon tomorrow." c) To indicate the rate per unit, like "Petrol is sold at Rs. 90/litre." d) To denote time, such as arrival or departure, as in "I go to school at 7.00 o'clock" or "The passenger train leaves at 5.00 o'clock."

3. Beside: Indicates a position at the side of or 'by'. For example, "She stands beside me."

4. By: Used: a) In the passive voice of a sentence, as in "The application was written by her." b) Before the name of any vehicle indicating a journey.

5. For: Used: a) To show purpose or destination, as in "These clothes are for her" or "She has come here to attend a reunion." b) For a period of time, like "They have been playing for two hours."

6. In: Used in various contexts: a) Before names of large cities, states, and countries, such as "My sister lives in Ambala" or "My father lives in Canada." b) For things at rest, as in "There is milk in the glass" or "The audiences are sitting in the auditorium." c) Before names of months, years, and seasons to express periods of time, such as "She goes for exercise in the evening" or "He passed his degree in 2020."

7. Into: Used for things denoting inward motion, as in "The audience rushed into the auditorium."

8. On: Used: a) To denote resting position, as in "The bird is sitting on the wall" or "The notebooks are lying on the bench." b) Before the names of days and dates, such as "My brother is coming on Monday" or "Our classes will start on 05 July."

9. Over and under: Over expresses a position 'higher than' or 'above', while 'under' indicates the position below.

10. Since: Used to indicate a time (usually the time of beginning), such as "They have been roaming since morning" or "She has been waiting since 9 o'clock."

11. To: Used: a) To indicate forward motion, as in "My friend is going to Panchkula tomorrow" or "I am going to the store." b) In the comparative degree of adjectives, like "Sarla is senior to me" or "I prefer coffee to tea."

12. Upon: Used for a thing in motion, as in "The rat jumped upon the bed" or "The boy jumped upon the platform."

13. With: Used: a) To denote accompaniment, as in "She is going to Patiala with her husband." b) To denote the instrument of action, such as "I cut the vegetables with a table knife" or "I write with a pencil."

Between: "She is sitting between Tom and Sarah."

Behind: "The car is behind the house."

Above: "The bird is flying above the clouds."

During: "He fell asleep during the lecture.

With: "She went to the party with her friends."

After: "We will meet after the movie."

Practice questions:

Fill in the blank with the correct preposition (HSBTE website):

1. When she was in Delhi, she stayed at Palm Hotel.

2. Would he prefer to study at a government school or a private school?

3. Mohan stays by the seaside for a week each month.

4. We met her at a mall.

5. Kasauli is situated at 1800 meters above sea level.

6. Yamun Nagar is situated on the bank of the river Yamuna.

7. My town is situated at the foot of the Shivalik Hill.

8. In this long-distance train, meals are served to the passengers at their seats.

9. She lives on the fifth floor of this tower.

10. Jammu is in the north of India.

11. His train will leave at 10 a.m. from the railway station.

12. She has been working at this office since 2020.

13. The alarm has been ringing for five minutes.

14. The work must be finished by Friday.

Conjunction

Conjunctions are words that connect or link different words, phrases, clauses, or sentences within a sentence. They join elements together, creating relationships, and establishing coherence in communication. Conjunctions are broadly classified into three main types: coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, and correlative conjunctions.

1. Coordinating Conjunctions: These conjunctions connect words, phrases, or independent clauses that are similar or equal in structure.

Common Coordinating Conjunctions:

• · For: I like pizza for it's delicious.

• · And: He likes coffee, and he drinks it every morning.

• · Nor: He neither likes tea nor coffee.

• · But: I wanted to go, but I couldn't.

• · Or: You can have tea or coffee.

2. Subordinating Conjunctions: These conjunctions connect independent clauses to dependent clauses. It indicates a relationship of dependence or hierarchy.

Common Subordinating Conjunctions:

• · Because: She stayed home because it was raining.

• · Although: Although it was raining, she went for a walk.

• · If: If you finish your homework, you can go out.

• · While: He studied while his friends played.

• · Since: I have known her since kindergarten.

3. Correlative Conjunctions: These conjunctions work in pairs to connect similar elements within a sentence.

Common Correlative Conjunctions:

• · Either...or: You can either eat now or later.

• · Neither...nor: Neither the cat nor the dog is in the house.

• · Both...and: She is both intelligent and hardworking.

• · Not only...but also: Not only did he sing, but he also danced.

• · Whether...or: I don't know whether he will come or not.

Conjunctions are essential for constructing well-formed sentences and for expressing complex relationships between ideas. They help create smooth and logical connections between words, phrases, or clauses. They enhance the overall flow and coherence of written or spoken language. Understanding the different types of conjunctions and their uses is fundamental for effective communication in English.

Punctuation

Punctuation is a set of marks or symbols used in written language to clarify meaning, indicate pauses, and structure sentences. Proper punctuation is for conveying ideas, maintaining consistency, and ensuring that the intended message is accurately communicated. Common punctuation marks include periods, commas, question marks, exclamation points, colons, semicolons, apostrophes, quotation marks, parentheses, and dashes.

The following are some common punctuation marks and their uses:

1. Period (.):

• · Indicates the end of a declarative or imperative sentence.

• · It is also used in abbreviations.

2. Comma (,): Separates items in a list.

• · Sets off introductory phrases or clauses.

• · Separates independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction.

• · Separates items in dates and addresses.

3. Question Mark (?):

• · Indicates the end of an interrogative sentence.

• · Used in direct questions.

4. Exclamation Point (!):

• · Indicates strong emotion, surprise, or emphasis.

• · Used in exclamatory sentences.

5. Colon (:):

• · Introduces a list or an explanation.

• · Used in time expressions.

• · Precedes a formal quotation.

6. Semicolon (;):

• · Connects two closely related independent clauses.

• · Separates items in a list when commas are already used.

7. Apostrophe ('):

• · Indicates possession.

• · Used in contractions.

8. Quotation Marks (" "):

• · Enclose direct speech or a quotation.

• · Set off titles of short works (e.g., articles, poems).

9. Parentheses ( ):

• · Set off additional information within a sentence.

• · Enclose numbers or letters in a list.

10. Dash (—):

• · Sets off a break or interruption in a sentence.

• · Emphasizes or adds extra information.

11. Ellipsis (...):

• · Indicates omitted words or a trailing off of thought.

• · Used to create suspense or suggest continuation.

12. Brackets [ ]: Enclose editorial comments or explanations within a quotation.

• Idioms and Phrases

“a group of words whose meaning is different from the meanings of the individual words is called idiom”,

“a group of words in a fixed order that has a particular meaning that is different from the meanings of each word on its own”.

1. Bite the bullet: Meaning: To endure a painful or difficult situation with courage.

• Use: Despite the challenges, she decided to bite the bullet and face the consequences.

2. Break the ice: Meaning: To initiate a conversation in a social setting.

• Use: His humorous comment helped break the ice at the party, making everyone feel more relaxed.

3. Hit the nail on the head: Meaning: To describe exactly what is causing a situation or problem.

• Use: The professor hit the nail on the head when he identified the main issue affecting the project.

4. Cost an arm and a leg: Meaning: To be very expensive.

• Use: Buying a new car can cost an arm and a leg, so it's essential to budget carefully.

5. Jump on the bandwagon: Meaning: To adopt a popular activity or trend.

• Use: Many companies are quick to jump on the bandwagon of new technologies to stay competitive.

6. Burn the midnight oil: Meaning: To work late into the night or early morning hours.

• Use: To meet the deadline, the team had to burn the midnight oil to complete the project.

7. Throw in the towel: Meaning: To give up or surrender.

• Use: After facing numerous challenges, the entrepreneur decided to throw in the towel and close the business.

8. Cutting corners: Meaning: Doing something most easily or cheaply, often sacrificing quality.

• Use: They completed the project quickly by cutting corners, but the final result lacked the desired excellence.

9. In the same boat: Meaning: In a similar situation or predicament.

• Use: We are all in the same boat when it comes to adapting to the changes brought about by technology.

10. A piece of cake: Meaning: Something very easy to do.

• Use: With her experience, the exam was a piece of cake for her.

Pairs of words (Words commonly misused and confused)

The following are some pairs of words that are commonly misused or confused due to their similar spellings or meanings:

1. Affect vs. Effect:

• Affect: To influence or produce a change.

• Effect: The result of a change or influence.

2. Accept vs. Except:

• Accept: To receive or agree to something.

• Except: Excluding or leaving out.

3. Their vs. There vs. They're:

• Their: Belonging to them.

• There: In that place.

• They're: Contraction of "they are."

4. Your vs. You're:

• Your: Belonging to you.

• You're: Contraction of "you are."

5. Its vs. It's:

• Its: Belonging to it.

• It's: a contraction of "it is" or "it has."

6. Then vs. Than:

• Then: Refers to a point in time.

• Than: Used in comparisons.

7. Loose vs. Lose:

• Loose: Not tight.

• Lose: To be deprived of or to fail to win.

8. Principal vs. Principle:

• Principal: Refers to a person (e.g., school principal) or a sum of money.

• Principle: A fundamental truth or rule.

9. A lot vs. Allot:

• A lot: Signifies a large quantity or extent.

Allot: To allocate or distribute.

10. Farther vs. Further:

• Farther: Refers to physical distance.

• Further: Refers to figurative distance or additional extent.

11. Lay vs. Lie:

• Lay: Requires a direct object; to place or put something down.

• Lie: Does not take a direct object; to recline or rest.

12. Stationary vs. Stationery:

• Stationary: Not moving or still.

• Stationery: Writing materials, such as paper and pens.

13. Averse vs. Adverse:

• Averse: Having a strong dislike or opposition to something.

• Adverse: Unfavorable or harmful.

14. Ensure vs. Insure vs. Assure:

• Ensure: To make certain.

• Insure: To provide insurance.

• Assure: To reassure or guarantee.

15. Practical vs. Practicable:

• Practical: Useful or suitable in practice.

• Practicable: Feasible or capable of being done.

Translation of Administrative and Technical Terms in Hindi.

Administrative Terms:

• 1. Administrator:

• 2. English: Administrator, Hindi: प्रशासक (Prashasak)

• 3. Manager: English: Manager Hindi: प्रबंधक (Prabandhak)

• 4. Supervisor: English: Supervisor Hindi: पर्यवेक्षक (Paryavekshak)

• 5. Department: English: Department Hindi: विभाग (Vibhag)

• 6. Policy: English: Policy Hindi: नीति (Neeti)

• 7. Procedure: English: Procedure, Hindi: प्रक्रिया (Prakriya)

• 8. Meeting: English: Meeting, Hindi: सम्मेलन (Sammelan)

• 9. Report: English: Report, Hindi: रिपोर्ट (Report)

• 10. Budget: English: Budget Hindi: बजट (Budget)

• 11. Evaluation: English: Evaluation, Hindi: मूल्यांकन (Mulyankan)